Vacuum and convection drying of Tenebrio molitor and Acheta domesticus insects
https://doi.org/10.21323/2618-9771-2026-9-2-357-366
Abstract
Insects are a promising source of protein and lipids for food and feed purposes. The most common form of their use is flour obtained by drying and grinding. The method and conditions of insect processing significantly affect the physicochemical, microbiological, and organoleptic characteristics of the final product. This study compared convection and vacuum drying of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and house cricket (Acheta domesticus) larvae at temperatures of 50 °C, 80 °C, and 105 °C. The influence of the drying method and conditions on the process rate, appearance, and microbiological safety of the resulting product was assessed. Increasing the drying temperature was found to reduce the drying time for both insect species. At temperature 50 °C, vacuum drying of A. domesticus samples achieved a moisture of less than 5 % more quickly than the convection method. Increasing the convection drying temperature led to pronounced darkening of T. molitor larval flour, whereas the color change for A. domesticus was minor. Vacuum drying under all studied conditions better preserved the original color and shape of the insects. Drying at temperature 105 °C yielded a product that met microbiological safety requirements. Therefore, the choice of drying method should be determined by the intended use of the product: vacuum drying is optimal for whole insects, preserving their marketable appearance, whereas for flour production, the more economical convection drying at high temperatures, which ensures microbiological purity, is acceptable.
Supporting agencies: The work was carried out within the framework of the state assignments of the All-Russian Research Institute for Food Additives – Branch of V. M. Gorbatov Federal Research Center for Food Systems of RAS on the topics FGUS‑2024-0010 and FGUS‑2025-0005.
About the Authors
E. V. Mechtaeva
All-Russian Research Institute for Food Additives
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Elizaveta V. Mechtaeva, Researcher, Laboratory of Industrial Bio-technological Innovations
55, Liteiny pr., 190000, St. Petersburg
P. N. Vasilev
All-Russian Research Institute for Food Additives
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Platon N. Vasilev, Laboratory Assistant, Laboratory of Industrial Bio-technological Innovations
55, Liteiny pr., 190000, St. Petersburg
N. A. Nikitina
All-Russian Research Institute for Food Additives
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Natalia A. Nikitina, Laboratory Assistant, Laboratory of Industrial Bio-technological Innovations
55, Liteiny pr., 190000, St. Petersburg
A. Z. Zhuravleva
All-Russian Research Institute for Food Additives
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Aigul Z. Zhuravleva, Candidate of Veterinary Sciences, Deputy Director
55, Liteiny pr., 190000, St. Petersburg
V. Yu. Sitnov
All-Russian Research Institute for Food Additives
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Veniamin Yu. Sitnov, Director
55, Liteiny pr., 190000, St. Petersburg
References
1. Newbold, T., Hudson, L. N., Hill, S. L. L., Contu, S., Lysenko, I., Senior, R. A. et al. (2015). Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity. Nature, 520(7545), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14324.
2. Gallardo, R. K. (2024). The environmental impacts of agriculture: A review. International Review of Environmental and Resource Economics, 18(1–2), 165–235. https://doi.org/10.1561/101.00000166.
3. Amoah, I., Cobbinah, J. C., Yeboah, J. A., Essiam, F. A., Lim, J. J., Tandoh, M. A. et al. (2023). Edible insect powder for enrichment of bakery products — A review of nutritional, physical characteristics and acceptability of bakery products to consumers. Future Foods, 8, Article 100251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2023.100251.
4. Yazici, G. N., Ozer, M. S. (2021). Using edible insects in the production of cookies, biscuits, and crackers: A review. Biology and Life Sciences Forum, 6(1), Article 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/Foods2021-10974.
5. van Huis, A., Oonincx, D. G. A. B. (2017). The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37(5), Article 43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-017-0452-8.
6. Gahukar, R. T. (2016). Edible insects farming: Efficiency and impact on family livelihood, food security, and environment compared with livestock and crops. Chapter in a book: Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients. Academic Press, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802856-8.00004-1.
7. Hammer, L., Moretti, D., Abbühl-Eng, L., Kandiah, P., Hilaj, N., Portmann, R. et al. (2023). Mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and crickets (Acheta domesticus) show high total protein in vitro digestibility and can provide good-to-excellent protein quality as determined by in vitro DIAAS. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10, Article 1150581. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1150581.
8. Rodríguez-Rodríguez, M., Barroso, F. G., Fabrikov, D., Sánchez-Muros, M. J. (2022). In vitro crude protein digestibility of insects: A review. Insects, 13(8), Article 682. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13080682.
9. Churchward-Venne, T. A, Pinckaers, P. J. M., Van Loon, J. J. A., Van Loon, L. J. C. (2017). Consideration of insects as a source of dietary protein for human consumption. Nutrition Reviews, 75(12), 1035–1045. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nux057.
10. Syahrulawal, L., Torske, M. O., Sapkota, R., Næss, G., Khanal, P. (2023). Improving the nutritional values of yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) larvae as an animal feed ingredient: A review. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 14(1), Article 146. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-023-00945-x.
11. Nafary, A., Mousavi Nezhad, S. A., Jalili, S. (2023). Extraction and characterization of chitin and chitosan from Tenebrio molitor beetles and investigation of its antibacterial effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Advanced Biomedical Research, 12(1), Article 96. https://doi.org/10.4103/abr.abr_205_22.
12. Turck, D., Castenmiller, J., De Henauw, S., Hirsch-Ernst, K. I., Kearney, J., Maciuk, A., et al. (2021). Safety of dried yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larva) as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal, 19(1), Article e06343. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6343.
13. Mlcek, J., Rop, O., Borkovcova, M., Bednarova, M. (2014). A comprehensive look at the possibilities of edible insects as food in Europe — A review. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 64(3), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10222-012-0099-8.
14. EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Turck, D., Bohn, T., Cámara, M., Castenmiller, J., De Henauw, S. et al. (2024). Safety of frozen, dried and powder forms of house crickets (Acheta domesticus) as a novel food pursuant. EFSA Journal, 22(12). Article e9101. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2024.9101.
15. Ardoin, R., Prinyawiwatkul, W. (2021). Consumer perceptions of insect consumption: A review of western research since 2015. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 56(10), 4942–4958. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15167.
16. Delicato, C., Schouteten, J. J., Dewettinck, K., Gellynck, X., Tzompa-Sosa, D. A. (2020). Consumers’ perception of bakery products with insect fat as partial butter replacement. Food Quality and Preference, 79, Article 103755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103755.
17. Polubesova, M. A., Novikova (Zakharova), M. V., Ryabukhin, D. S. (2022). Entomophagy: Are insects safe for human food? Food systems, 5(1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.21323/2618-9771-2022-5-1-70-76.
18. Larouche, J., Deschamps, M.-H., Saucier, L., Lebeuf, Y., Doyen, A., Vandenberg, G.W. (2019). Effects of killing methods on lipid oxidation, colour and microbial load of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. Animals, 9(4), Article 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9040182.
19. Dossey, A. T., Tatum, J. T., McGill, W. L. (2016). Modern insect-based food industry: Current status, insect processing technology, and recommendations moving forward. Chapter in a book: Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients. Academic Press, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802856-8.00005-3.
20. Wessels, M. L. J., Azzollini, D., Fogliano, V. (2020). Frozen storage of lesser mealworm larvae (Alphitobius diaperinus) changes chemical properties and functionalities of the derived ingredients. Food Chemistry, 320, Article 126649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126649.
21. Garofalo, C., Milanović, V., Cardinali, F., Aquilanti, L., Clementi, F., Osimani, A. (2019). Current knowledge on the microbiota of edible insects intended for human consumption: A state-of-the-art review. Food Research International, 125, Article 108527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2019.108527.
22. Moosekian, S. R., Jeong, S., Marks, B. P., Ryser, E. T. (2012). X-ray irradiation as a microbial intervention strategy for food. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 3, 493–510. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-022811-101306.
23. Bogusz, R., Bryś, J., Onopiuk, A., Pobiega, K., Tomczak, A., Kowalczewski, P.Ł. et al. (2024). The impact of drying methods on the quality of blanched yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) larvae. Molecules, 29(15), Article 3679. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29153679.
24. Vlahova-Vangelova, D., Balev, D., Kolev, N., Dragoev, S., Petkov, E., Popova, T. (2024). Comparison of the effect of drying treatments on the physicochemical parameters, oxidative stability, and microbiological status of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) flours as an alternative protein source. Agriculture, 14(3), Article 436. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14030436.
25. Trukhanova, K. A., Mechtaeva, E. V., Novikova, M. V., Sorokoumov, P. N., Ryabukhin, D. S. (2022). Influence of drying and pretreatment methods on certain parameters of yellow mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor). Theory and Practice of Meat Processing, 7(4), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.21323/2414-438X-2022-7-4-247-257.
26. Azzolini, D., Derossi, A., Severini, C. (2016). Understanding the drying kinetic and hygroscopic behaviour of larvae of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and the effects on their quality. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 2(4), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2016.0001.
27. Inyang, U. E., Oboh, I. O., Etuk, B. R. (2018). Kinetic models for drying techniques — food materials. Advances in Chemical Engineering and Science, 8(2), 27–48. https://doi.org/10.4236/aces.2018.82003.
28. Xu, P., Zhang, Z., Peng, X., Yang, J., Li, X., Yuan, T. et al. (2022). Study on vacuum drying kinetics and processing of the Lonicera japonica Thunb. aqueous extracts. LWT, 167, Article 113868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113868.
29. Lashkari, H., Halabinejad, M., Rafati, A., Namdar, A. (2020). Shelf life extension of veal meat by edible coating incorporated with Zataria multiflora essential oil. Journal of Food Quality, 2020, Article 8871857. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8871857.
30. Purschke, B., Brüggen, H., Scheibelberger, R., Jäger, H. (2018). Effect of pre-treatment and drying method on physico-chemical properties and dry fractionation behaviour of mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.). European Food Research and Technology, 244(2), 269–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-017-2953-8.
31. Maskan, M. (2001). Kinetics of colour change of kiwifruits during hot air and microwave drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 48(2), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(00)00154-0.
32. Kröncke, N., Böschen, V., Woyzichovski, J., Demtröder, S., Benning, R. (2018). Comparison of suitable drying processes for mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 50, 20–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2018.10.009.
33. Beigi, M. (2017). Mathematical modelling and determination of mass transfer characteristics of celeriac slices under vacuum drying. Periodica Polytechnica Chemical Engineering, 61(2), 109–116. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPch.9271.
34. Richter Reis, F., Ivahashi, M. M., Guéniat Rosa, A. H. (2016). Effect of vacuum drying temperature on drying kinetics, effective moisture diffusivity and quality of peeled litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.). Journal of Food Process Engineering, 40(2), Article е12419. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12419.
35. Khatun, H., Claes, J., Smets, R., De Winne, A., Akhtaruzzaman, M., Van Der Borght, M. (2021). Characterization of freeze-dried, oven-dried and blanched house crickets (Acheta domesticus) and Jamaican field crickets (Gryllus assimilis) by means of their physicochemical properties and volatile compounds. European Food Research and Technology, 247(5), 1291–1305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-021-03709-x.
36. Fröhling, A., Bußler, S., Durek, J., Schlüter, O.K. (2020). Thermal impact on the culturable microbial diversity along the processing chain of flour from crickets (Acheta domesticus). Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, Article 884. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00884.
37. Psarianos, M., Rossi Ribeiro, L., Landgraber, E., Ojha, S., Schlüter, O.K. (2025). Combined effect of pulsed electric fields and drying method on the microbial load and protein properties of house crickets (Acheta domesticus). Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 102, Article 104027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2025.104027.
38. Hosseinpour, S., Rafiee, S., Mohtasebi, S.S., Aghbashlo, M. (2013). Application of computer vision technique for on-line monitoring of shrimp color changes during drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 115(1), 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.10.003.
39. Sharma, G. P., Prasad, S. (2001). Drying of garlic (Allium sativum) cloves by microwave-hot air combination. Journal of Food Engineering, 50(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0260-8774(00)00200-4.
40. Martins, M. G., Martins, D. E. G., Pena, R. da S. (2015). Drying kinetics and hygroscopic behavior of pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) fillet with different salt contents. LWT — Food Science and Technology, 62(1), 144–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.01.010.
41. Hidalgo, F. J., Zamora, R. (2000). The role of lipids in nonenzymatic browning. Grasas y Aceites, 51(1–2), 35–49. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.2000.v51.i1-2.405.
42. Das, D., Bhattacharya, A., Ikbal, A., Chowdhury, S., Murmu, P., Nath, S. et al. (2022). A mini-review: Enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. International Research Journal of Innovations in Engineering and Technology, 6(8), 118–123. https://doi.org/10.47001/IRJIET/2022.608014.
43. Zhen, Y., Chundang, P., Zhang, Y., Wang, M., Vongsangnak, W., Pruksakorn, C. et al. (2020). Impacts of killing process on the nutrient content, product stability and in vitro digestibility of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meals. Applied Sciences, 10(17), Article 6099. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10176099.
44. Gupta, S., Sood, M., Gupta, N., Bandral, J. D., Langeh, A. (2022). Food browning, its type and controlling measures: A review article. Chemical Science Review and Letters, 11(44), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.37273/chesci.cs205307512.
45. Yu, Y., Chen, D., Li, W., Mou, Y., Geng, Y., Chen, F. et al. (2023). Quinone reactivity: Investigation of their contribution to nonenzymatic browning. Food Frontiers, 4(2), 945–954. https://doi.org/10.1002/fft2.247.
46. Corzo-Martınez, M., Corzo, N., Villamiel, M., del Castillo, M.D. (2012). Browning Reactions. Chapter in a book: Food Biochemistry and Food Processing (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2012. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajfst-7-5-1.
47. El Hosry, L., Elias, V., Chamoun, V., Halawi, M., Cayot, P., Nehme, A. et al. (2025). Maillard reaction: Mechanism, influencing parameters, advantages, disadvantages, and food industrial applications: A review. Foods, 14(11), Article 1881. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14111881.
48. Kröncke, N., Grebenteuch, S., Keil, C., Demtröder, S., Kroh, L., Thünemann, A. F. et al. (2019). Effect of different drying methods on nutrient quality of the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.). Insects, 10(4), Article 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10040084.
49. Xu, Z., Yang, Z., Ji, J., Mou, Y., Chen, F., Xiao, Z. et al. (2023). Polyphenol mediated non-enzymatic browning and its inhibition in apple juice. Food Chemistry, 404(A), Article 134504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134504.
50. Janssen, R. H., Canelli, G., Sanders, M.G., Bakx, E. J., Lakemond, C. M. M., Fogliano, V. et al. (2019). Iron-polyphenol complexes cause blackening upon grinding Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly) larvae. Scientific Reports, 9(1), Article 2967. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-38923-x.
51. Leni, G., Caligiani, A., Sforza, S. (2019). Killing method affects the browning and the quality of the protein fraction of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae: A metabolomics and proteomic insight. Food Research International, 115, 116–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.08.021.
52. Janssen, R. H., Vincken, J.-P., Arts, N. J. G., Fogliano, V., Lakemond, C. M. M. (2019). Effect of endogenous phenoloxidase on protein solubility and digestibility after processing of Tenebrio molitor, Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens. Food Research International, 121, 684–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.12.038.
53. Tzompa-Sosa, D. A., Dewettinck, K., Provijn, P., Brouwers, J. F., de Meulenaer, B., Oonincx, D.G.A.B. (2021). Lipidome of cricket species used as food. Food Chemistry, 349, Article 129077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129077.
54. Siow, H. S., Sudesh, K., Murugan, P., Ganesan, S. (2021). Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) oil characterization and optimization of the free fatty acid pretreatment via acid-catalyzed esterification. Fuel, 299, Article 120905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120905.
55. Kosečková, P., Zvěřina, O., Pěchová, M., Krulíkova, M., Duborská, E., Borkovcová, M. (2022). Mineral profile of cricket powders, some edible insect species and their implication for gastronomy. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 107, Article 104340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2021.104340.
56. Klunder, H. C., Wolkers-Rooijackers, J., Korpela, J. M., Nout, M. J. R. (2012). Microbiological aspects of processing and storage of edible insects. Food Control, 26(2), 628–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.02.013.
57. Wynants, E., Crauwels, S., Lievens, B., Luca, S., Claes, J., Borremans, A. et al. (2017). Effect of post-harvest starvation and rinsing on the microbial numbers and the bacterial community composition of mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor). Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 42, 8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.06.004.
58. Caparros Megido, R., Desmedt, S., Blecker, C., Béra, F., Haubruge, É., Alabi, T. et al. (2017). Microbiological load of edible insects found in Belgium. Insects, 8(1), Article 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects8010012.
59. Xiao, Q., Luo, H., Pan, Q., Chen, C., Xu, B., Li, P. (2025). Dual roles of heat treatments on the Clostridium perfringens spores: Germination or inactivation? Food Bioscience, 68, Article 106723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2025.106723.
60. Márquez-González, M., Cabrera-Díaz, E., Hardin, M. D., Harris, K. B., Lucia, L. M., Castillo, A. (2012). Survival and germination of Clostridium perfringens spores during heating and cooling of ground pork. Journal of Food Protection, 75(4), 682–689. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-11-409.
Review
For citations:
Mechtaeva E.V., Vasilev P.N., Nikitina N.A., Zhuravleva A.Z., Sitnov V.Yu. Vacuum and convection drying of Tenebrio molitor and Acheta domesticus insects. Food systems. 2026;9(2):357-366. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.21323/2618-9771-2026-9-2-357-366
Views:
52
JATS XML
Email this article 